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ROME: Art and Architecture

1000-800BC

• Fall of Troy.
• Aeneas escapes for Italy and founds Lavinium.
• Aeneas' son Ascanius founds Alba Longa at a site near the future Rome.
• 10 generations after Ascanius, Amulius steals the kingdom from his brother Numitor and forces Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia, future mother of Romulus and Remus, to become a Vestal Virgin.
  Rhea Silvia hides the boys in a basket and sends it down the Tiber river where they are found by a She Wolf (probably a prostitute actually) and a shepherd called Faustulus.
• Romulus and Remus avenge their uncle and mother and leave Alba Longa to found their own city - Rome.

• Remains of shepherd huts and settlements found around the Palatine and Capitoline hills dating back to the 10^th century BC.

21^st or 24^th of April 753BC ?

Ruling structure was King, Senate, Citizens.

• Rome founded "Ab Urbe Condita".
• Romulus invites all who wish to come to become citizens.
• Women taken from the nearby Sabine people (probably alluding to taking of the salt trade).
• Peace made with the Sabines who settle on the Palatine.
• The "first" families are the nobles or Patricians. Only they have Roman citizenship.

• Romulus kills his brother Remus in a fight as they plough the sacred furrow (Pomoerium) round the city. Romulus remains sole ruler of the new city.
• Treachery of Tarpeia allows the Sabines to enter the city but the Sabine women force peace.
• 715 BC Romulus dies. He appears in a vision predicting that Rome will be capital of the world.

• Homer, poet (800BC).

Writer of the Iliad and Odissey: the roots of western literature.

• Hut on the Palatine hill
• Tomb of Romulus - "Lapis Niger" plaque placed by Julius Caesar in the Forum
• Tarpeian Rock on the Palatine reminds us of Tarpeia's treachery.

700BC Six kings of Rome after Romulus:

Debut of the gods Jupiter, Mars, Janus and Terminus.

(715-673BC)

A Sabine elected by the Romans

• 43 years of peace.
• Temple of Janus on Capitol with doors closed in times of peace.

• Set the foundations of Worship of the gods and cultivation of the land. Land is subdivided.

• Creation of the religious figurehead and title "Pontifex Maximus", now held by the Pope.

A belligerant so-and-so who taught his subjects the art of war but forgot to worship the gods.

Tullus Hostilius.

(673-642BCC)

3^rd King of Rome

• Became ruler of Alba Longa also.
• Alba Longa destroyed and citizens moved to Rome.

• Picked a war with Alba Longa. The victor was decided by a fight between the Horatii and Curiatii brothers.

650 BC

(642-617BC)

Made the Etruscan Tarquinius Priscus tutor of his sons.

• Ancus was pious and fortified Rome.
• City of Ostia founded at the Tiber's mouth to the Mediterranean.

• Tablets published with rules of proper worship.
• Opening of trade routes by sea
• First bridge across the Tiber
•  

First of the Estruscan kings of Rome.

(616-579BC) - an Etruscan who came from the north and settled in Rome. Father of Lucius Tarquinius (Superbus)

• Overcame the Etruscans and conquered other surrounding tribes.

• Urban development:
  - The Capitol
  - Rome city sewers
  - Circus Maximus
• Took the Etruscan symbols of power including the purple robe and bundles of rods with axe.

• The Capitol
• The Cloaca Maxima sewers
• The mouth of truth (bocca della verita') is a very famous drain cover.
• The Circus Maximus

Good king Servius - never forgot his humble origins.

(579-535BC) - a slave adopted by Tarquinius Priscus. Took power when Tarquinius was murdered by one of Ancus Martius' sons.

• Reform of the army. Landowners forced to join the army.
• Formed Comitia Centuriata
• Fortified Rome's defences.

• Class structure divided into 5 levels of land ownership
• Division of the city into four areas.
• Established a census (qv Censors).

• Servian walls around the city (parts still visible in various points such as by Termini station).
• Campus Martius area for military training.

Birth of the Roman hate of Kings

last of the Seven Kings of Rome

(535-509BC) - Etruscan. Together with Servius' daughter he plotted and murdered Servius Tullius in the Forum.

• Tarquinius' love for war and alliance with his three sons brought many surrounding tribes to heel through force and trickery.
• 509 Tarquinius allies with Rome's enemies to win his throne back. Roman troops become battle hardened.

• Purchase of the sacred Sybilline books foretelling Rome's future.
• The Etruscan king Porsenna threatens invasion (probably actually succeeded to take the city).
• Peace is struck when Porsenna is overawed by Roman courage especially that of "Scaevola" (the left handed).

• Sybil of Cumae, seer who wrote the Sybilline books held sacred by all Romans hence forth especially when the city was in danger.

• Villages of Sutri and Tuscania to the north of Rome. These were Etruscan towns which participated in the Tarquinius Superbus affair.
  They were also the first earthly dominions held by the Roman Catholic Church in the Middle Ages.

509BC - Rome becomes a republic

Period of adjustment as nobles fight for power.

Lucius Brutus - a quasi King - Consul

It is unlikely that a clear system of government emerged imideately to replace the king. A "Magister Populi" or "Praetor" probably took over for set mandates.

• Economic development during the Etruscan epoch brought merchants, nobles and other free men of various extractions to the city. "Clients"

Constant war and conquest of Italy

• Rich becoming richer and poor becoming poorer.

Social struggles continue between nobles and commoners.

• Tribunes created to represent Plebeian rights and counter-balance power of the nobility (Patricians)
• Position of "Aedile" created to assist the Tribunes (Julius Caesar was to become aedile 400 years later)

• 450 Brief rule of the Decemvirs (ten men).

• Unrest as the plebeians demand land and rights in exchange for their efforts at war.
• The Plebeians threaten to leave Rome to found their own city.

• First written laws of Rome. Published on 12 bronze tablets.
• Election of Tribunes given to the assembly of (Plebeian) "Tribes".
• The Valerio-Horatian laws give Tribunes the right to sit & listen at the Senate and Veto measures they did not approve.

• Socrates, philosopher (469-399BC)

• "Capitoline Wolf", bronze statue of Etruscan manufacture in the Capitoline Museum. It represents the She-wolf and Romulus and Remus.

The archetypal symbol of Rome.

All previous written records were destroyed during the Gaulish invasion of Rome in 390BC

• Consular power continues
  
• Deeds of Cincinnatus who was called to leave his work as farmer to serve as Dictator. He defeated the Aequians and then returned to work his small farm.

• Deeds of Coriolanus
• Wars of Camillus against the Etruscans.
• 391 Etruscan city of Veii is sieged and taken just to the north of Rome.
• Prophecy that the taking of Veii would precede the taking of Rome….
• 390 Gauls take Rome but not the Capitol.

• Plebeians gain right to a position close to that of a Consul:
  "Military Tribune with Consular Powers"

• Aristoteles, philosopher. 384-322 BC. Student of Plato and Tutor to Alexander the Great. As a philosopher he established the bases of the scientific disciplines.

Patricians and Plebeians achieve equal rights in the state.

• Government of Rome still held by 2 elected Consuls.
• At least one Consul must be Plebeian.

• Romans and Etruscans allies
• 343-290 Wars against the Samnites and Latins (powerful Italian tribes).
• Roman treaties with Latin cities.

• The Patricians (nobles) create a new position to assist the Consuls: "Censor"
• Law to impose at least 1 plebeian Consul to govern.
• 312BC Appian way roman road  constructed to hold S.Italy.

• "Capitoline Brutus", very rare bronze portrait bust held in the Capitoline Museum. Myth has it that it is of Lucius Brutus - First Consul of the Republic.

Conquest of Italy brings Rome face to face with Carthage as war for dominance of the Mediterranean seas

• 295 Roman victory at Sentinum against Gauls, Etruscans and Samnites.
• 281-275 War with Pyrrhus
• 264-241 First Punic War (against the very powerful north African city of Carthage)
• 216 Terrible defeat of the Romans by Hannibal at Cannae
• 218-202 Second Punic War
• 202 Hannibal defeated

• 211 Archimedes killed

100

• 149-146 Third and last Punic War
• 146 Fall of Carthage at the hands of Scipio Africanus
• 133 Spain becomes a Roman province.
• 108-101 Northern barbarians move south and threaten Italy - defeated by the great general Marius.
• 88-82 Bloody civil war between generals Marius and Sulla.
• 58-49 Caesar's campaigns in Gaul & First expeditions to Britain

• Gracchi brothers, politicians of socialist ideals. Forefathers and inspiration to all future revolutionaries.
• Julius Caesar, great military leader, dictator of Rome.
  (100-44BC)
• Vitruvius

"The first architect of Rome". Maker of war machines for Caesar and Augustus. Wrote ten books which hand down Roman technology and architecture.

43 Mark-Anthony, Lepidus & Octavianus (Augustus Caesar) form second Triumvirate

• 49-48 Civil war between Caesar and Pompey

• 42 Death of Brutus at battle of Philippi
• 31BC Death of Mark-Anthony and Cleopatra.

• Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero)
  106BC-43BC, Orator, Writer and Lawyer. His politics were generally opposed to those of Julius Caesar.

Beginning of the Roman Empire.

4BC Birth of Jesus Christ.

IMP CAESAR AUGUSTUS

• 31BC Victory of Augustus over Mark-Anthony at Actium
• 16-9 BC Annex of Gaul and Germany into the empire

• 27BC Emperor Octavian is renamed Augustus "The Great One".
• 29BC Doors to the temple of Janus on the Capitol are closed (peace).
• 4AD Augustus adopts Tiberius

• Agrippa (63- 12BC), brother in law of Augustus. Built the Pantheon.
• Horace (65-8BC), poet.
• Livy (59-BC-17AD), historian
• Virgil (70-19BC), poet.

• 29BC Mausoleum (tomb) of Augustus and family.
• 9BC
  Ara Pacis altar to peace.
• 2BC Forum of Augustus
• Pantheon built by Agrippa in honor of Augustus.

29AD Jesus Christ Crucified

Tiberius (14-37) Became a Tyrant.

Caligula (37-41) Had some brain disorder/madness

• 14-16 German military campaign

• 14 AD Emperor Augustus deified.

• Ovid (43BC-18AD), poet. Generally regarded as an equal to Virgil.

• 45AD Ostia port built
• 52AD Claudian acqueduct & Porta Maggiore gate of Rome

End of the Julio-Claudian line of emperors

Claudius (41-54) - Good guy with a stutter. Poisoned with a plate of mushrooms by his wife, mother of Nero.

Nero (54-68) - wanted to be an artist and went a little crazy under the strain of politics.

• 43 Claudius conquers southern Britain
• 62 Nero's period of madness begins when he does away with his meddling mother and wife.

• 64 Great fire of Rome
• 64 Nero's persecution of the Christians.
• 67 AD St.Peter crucified
• and St. Paul decapitated.
• 68 Nero's suicide

• Seneca (3BC-65AD), philosopher and tutor to Nero.

He spent a period as co-administrator of the empire during which time the empire lived a period of splendour.

• 64 Nero's Domus Aurea (the Golden House). Included a colossal statue of Nero which years later was moved to the Colosseum (the "Flavian Amphitheatre") and hence gave it its common name of "Colosseum"

Start of the Flavian line of emperors

Domitian (81-96)

• 70 Titus takes and loots Jerusalem
• 80 Dominions in Britain extended to Scotland.
• 85 War against the Dacians.

• 79 Vesuvius' eruption buries Pompeii and Herculaneum.
• 96 Domitian claims "God and Master" as a living emperor-god & precipitates his own murder.

• Pliny the Elder (24-79), writer.
  
• Quintilian (35-95), orator.
• Tacitus (55-118). Great Roman historian.

• 80 AD The Colosseum - (Flavian Amphitheatre) was built.
• 81AD Arch of Titus
• 81AD Domus Flavia and Domus Augustana on the Palatine

Start of the "Adoptive emperors" - Five good emperors

Nerva (96-98) - A good senator not cut out to be Emperor

Trajan (98-117) - Great

• 101 War against the Dacians.
• The Empire reaches its greatest size.

• 96 Nerva chosen as emperor by the Senate.
• Nerva adopts the Spaniard Trajan - the first emperor from the provinces.

• Plutarch (46-120) Historian and Philosopher.
• Pliny the Younger (62-113)
• Juvenal (68-128), poet

• 97 Forum of Nerva
• 107-113 Trajan's Forum, Markets and Trajan's Column

125

Hadrian (117-138) - Fabulous. Went a little quiet and morose when his lover Antinous drowned. He also wrote one of the most lovely poems: "Animula Vascula Blandula"

• Peace of the empire through border fortifications.
• Hadrian's wall in Britannia.

• Hadrian journeys throughout the empire (see Yourcenar - "Hadrian's memoirs").
• Birth of bureaucrats.

• Apolodorus of Damascus (100AD), Architect
• Suetonius (70-130), writer-historian (Biography of the Caesars).

• 117 Hadrian's villa in Tivoli
• 118 Pantheon burnt down and rebuilt in its current form.
• 134 Hadrian's mausoleum (then transformed into Castel St. Angelo)

End of "Pax Romana"

Antoninus Pius (138-161). Pious as his name suggests.

Lucius Verus (161-169)

Commodus (176-192) - Mad on Gladiator fights. Died strangled in his bath by a fighter.

• Antoninus Pius brings the greatest period of peace.
• 164 War against the Parthians (see column of Marcus Aurelius)

• 165-180 Black death (Plague) epidemic throughout the empire.
• Commodus restarts succession by birth.

• 141 Temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina in the Forum.
• 145 Temple of Hadrian (on Piazza di Pietra square).
• 176 Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius
• Column of Marcus Aurelius "Colonna Antonina"
• Amazing portrait bust of Commodus as Hercules in the Capitoline Museum

Start of Severus line of emperors

Septimius Severus (193-211)

Caracalla (198-217) - Killed his brother and rubbed his name out.

• 208-211 War against the Britons.
• Caracalla murders his brother.
• Victory against Persians, Rome's worst enemy.

• All free persons of the empire are granted Roman Citizenship ("Constitutio Antoniana")

• 205-270 Plotinus , Philosopher

• 203 Arch of Septimius Severus
• 204 Arch of the Argentari (money changers)
• 216 Caracalla thermal baths

Continuous wars and rebellion across the empire.

• 3^rd-4^th centuries Catacombs of St. Callisto

225

Heliogabalus (218-222)

• The Sirian sun god "Sol Invictu" is adopted as state religion.

• Calixtus I (217-222) underlines the position of "Bishop of Rome" as head of the church.

250

Severus/Alexander/ Maximin/Thrax, Gordian I, II, III, Philip and others, Decius and others, Gallienus and others, Claudius II

• The empire's borders are threatened on all sides.
• Germanic barbarians suppressed as they push into northern Italy.

• Military rule of Rome and continuous instability and assassinations.
• 248 Celebration of Rome's first Millennium.
• Repeated persecutions of the Christians.
• Economic crisis of the Empire.

275

(270-275) a good emperor to give the long line of bad ones a breather.

• 272 Beautiful empress Zenobia of Palmira subdued and transferred to Rome.
• 274 Gaul retaken and empire reunited.

• Reform of the army.
• Introduction of cult of the emperor joint with cult of sun - "Sol Invictus"

• Diogenes, History of Philisophy.

• 270 Building of the Aurelian defence walls around Rome.
• 270 Gate of Saint Sebastian onto the Appian way.

(275-284): Tacitus, Probus, Carus, Carinus, Numerian

Empire split into East and West.

Diocletian (284-305). Generally a good emperor. Realized the need for heavy reforms but also persecuted the Christians.

Hats off to him for resigning his post according to self-imposed mandate. Enjoyed his vegetable garden thereafter.

• 293 Significant reforms of the empire and institutions. Tetrarchy.
• 297 Division of the empire into manageable units.
• Suppression of revolts and security of borders.

• Tetrarchy introduced as a means of preventing the continuous military coups d'etat.
• Oriental style absolute monarch - bad news for the Christians.

• Eusebius, History of the Church

• 300 Temple and altar to Mithras under San Clemente church.
• 300 Thermal baths of Diocletian
• 303 Decennalia column base.

Maximian, Constantius Chlorus, Galerius, Flavius Severus, Licinus

• Heavy persecution of the Christians.

• 306 Basilica of Maxentius in the Forum.
• 306 Maxentius' circus on the Appian way

Shift of power to Constantinople, protecting the West from the East.

He definitely shaped the future of the West.

• 312 Victory of general Constantine over general Maxentius.
• 324 Constantine sole emperor.
• 330 Bizantium called Constantinople & proclaimed "New Rome".

• Tetrarchy fails.
• 337 Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and baptised on his death bed.
• End of violent Christian persecutions Edict of Christian tolerance (edict of Milan)

• 312 Arch of Constantine
• 313 Colossal head & hand of Constantine in the Capitoline Museum
• 313 Church of San Giovanni in Laterano.
• 319 St. Peter's basilica (subsequently knocked down and rebuilt in its current glory). Some doors are the originals).

350

Constantine II, Constans, Constantius II,

• Constantine divides the empire across his three sons (who argue anyway).

• Arch of Janus in the Forum Boarium

Attempts to reinstate pagan gods.

Julian "the Apostate" (361-363)

• Paganism makes a final but brief re-appearance.

• Attempt to introduce Mithras as state religion.

Valentinian and successors

Valentinian (364-375)

Valens, Gratian, Valentinian II

• 375 Barbarian invasions begin and last through the Middle Ages.

• Pope Damasus I (366-384) establishes Papal doctrinal authority on basis of succession to St. Peter.

• 380 Bizantine mosaics of St Constanza and St Pudenziana churches.

Abolition of pagan cults

Theodosius I, Maximus, Eugenius

• The Spaniard Theodosius is emperor of the Eastern Empire and manages to reunite East and Western empire. The empire is re-divided on his death.

• 391 Christianity becomes the official state religion.
• The supreme authority of the Pope is recognised.

• Saint Paul's basilica outside the walls.

400

(395-423)

• General Stilicho, himself a German defends Rome from barbarian Alaric.
• Stilicho eliminated by Honorius as a threat to the throne. Alaric marches into Italy.

• St. Augustin
  (354-430). Reconciles Christianity and the Greek philosophy of Plato.

425

Valentinian III (425-455)

• Pope Celestine I (422-432). The third council of Efesus establishes the cult of Mary, mother of God.

• 430 Wooden paneled doors of St. Sabina basilica.
• 438 Mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore church

450

• Pope Leo the Great (440-461)
• Pope recognised by emperor Valentinian III as religious head for empire of the West.
• First "Pope" as we know them.

• Basilica of Santa Sabina overlooking circus Maximus on Aventine hill.
• Wooden portal of St. Sabina has most ancient image of the crucifixion.

Last Roman Emperor of the West

Romulus Augustulus

• 475 The boy emperor Romulus Augustulus is deposed.

Fall of the Roman Empire of the West.

500

• Pope Felix IV (526-530)
• The Benedictine order is established.

• 526 Church of Saints Cosma and Damiano in the forum. Mosaics.
• 579 Mosaic on the triumphal arch of St. Laurence outside the walls (church of San Lorenzo).

600

• Pope Gregory the Great (590-604). Sets foundations for secular power of the church.
• First missions to northern Europe and England.

• 625 Church of Saint Agnes outside the walls (Sant'Agnese fuori le mura)

Pope Stephen justifies secular power over territories through emperor Constantine's supposed inheritance.

• Pope Stephen II (752-757).
• Alliance with the Frankish kings. Their conversion from Arianism to church of Rome.
• Franks leave territorial rule over central Italy to the Pope.
• Pope Hadrian II (772-795)

• Church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin on the Forum Boarium.

Leo IV: Affirmation of secular and spiritual power of the Pope. "Papa Caput Totius Orbis". Pope head of the whole world.

• Coup by Leo III who crowns Charlemagne by surprise on Christmas day "Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire" and establishes Papal (divine) right to crown (or not)

896 Bizarre Council of the Cadaver - Pope Formosus' body (9 months long dead) is hauled into St. Peter's to defend "himself" against accusations of ambition, vanity, insubordination to Pope John VIII and failure to keep faith to oath.

• Charlemagne,
  Holy Roman Emperor
  (742-814)
• Leo III (795-816)

• Churches built:
  St. Praxedes,
  St. Cecilia in Trastevere
  St. Maria in Domnica.
• Fortification of the urban areas around the Vatican.
• Frescoes of the lower church at San Clemente (under Leo IV)

Popes subjected to the (immoral) influence of their lovers.

• Otho 1^st Emperor of the HRE of Germany establishes emperor's right to participate in Papal elections.
• Abbey of Cluny founded in France.

• Pope John XII (955-964)
• Pope Gregory V (996-999). First German Pope. Placed on seat of Peter by his cousin Otho 3^rd. Crowns Otho 3^rd Emperor.

• Church of St. Bartholomew (San Bartolomeo).

GREAT SCHISM OF THE CHURCH. (Still going on).

• 1077 The Normans loot Rome.
• 1088-1099 Pope Urban II supports the First Crusade and conquest of Jerusalem. Extreme hunger drove many crusaders to cannibalism.

• Henry IV excommunicated.
• Affirmation of Papal power over secular.
• 1054AD GREAT SCHISM of east and west. Orthodox and Catholic churches separate.
• Celibacy of the clergy imposed.

• Leo IX (1049-1054)
• First of many fights against the sale of positions in the church.

• Top level of San Clemente
• Church of Santi Quattro Coronati (the four crowned saints).
  Named after the manner of their martyrdom: Iron crowns of thorns nailed into their sculls.

Treaty which recognises Papal secular power in Rome.

Pope Clement III (1187-1191).

The Pope is recognised by the citizens of Rome as lord of the city.

• 1146 Arnoldo da Brescia rebels against Papal power over Rome and proclaims a Roman republic.
• 1155 Arnoldo dB is executed.
• 1148-51, 1189-92 Second & third Crusades

• Pope and Henry IV reconciled.

• The Lateran Council declares independence of the church from secular powers.

• Pope Calixtus II (1119-1124).

• Church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin
• Santa Maria in Trastevere
• 1150 Basilica of San Saba

1200

Innocent III (1198-1216)

• 1202-70 4^th, 5^th, 6^th, 7^th and 8^th Crusades
  
• Papal earthly power reaches a peak:
  
  The Pope is considered God's right-hand-man who grants rulers their earthly powers.

• 1220 - 1223 Dominican and Franciscan orders established.
• 1232 Inquisition commences and handed to the Dominicans to execute.
• Jews closed in Gettos

• St Thomas Aquinas, Theologian and philosopher (1224-1274).

Marries philosophy of the ancients, particularly Aristotle, and Christian theology so they work together in harmony.

• 1200 San Lorenzo fuori le mura (Saint Lawrence outside the walls)
• Bronze statue of St. Peter in St. Peter's basilica.
• 1280 Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva

Two Popes elected in 1378.

Clement V (1305-1314).

1378: Urban VI vs. Clement VIII

• Lowest ebb in influence of Rome.
• Lowest ebb in art and culture also.

• 1300 First Holy Year
• Clement V recognises clerical dependency on France and moves to Avignon.
• 1378-1418
  Great schism of the church.
  Pope and anti-Pope.

• Dante, poet (1265-1321)
• Giotto, artist (1267-1337)

• Lowest ebb in art and culture in Rome
  
• Mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore
• Frescoes in Santa Maria in Trastevere
• Giotto (Vatican museums)

Rome enters the Renaissance and makes it its own

Rome centre of the Renaissance.

Martin V
(1417-1431)

Borgia Pope

• Renewed Papal authority over central Italy.
  
• Reconstruction of Rome.

• Nepotism and moral decadence.
  
• Pope Nicolas attracts men of learning, art and science to Rome.
• Pope Sixtus starts the great art collections (1471)

• Fra Angelico, avant guard renaissance painter (monk)

• Rome becomes center of the Renaissance.
• Bronze doors of St. Peter's by Filarete.
• Sistine chapel (1473) &
• Pieta' statue (1498) by Michelangelo
• Palazzo della Cancelleria on Capitol
• Church of Santa Maria del Popolo

Rome continues as centre of the Renaissance

Julius II (1503-1513)

Paul III (1534-1549) - Farnese family

• 1527 Rome is looted and pillaged by Charles V.

• 1500 Holy Year
• Pope Leo collects money through indulgences to build St. Peter's.
• 1534 Birth of the Jesuit order
• 1545 Council of Trent and the Counter Reformation (against the Protestant reform)

• Martin Luther started the Protestant reform.
  
• 1491-1556 St. Ignatius Loyola. Founder of the Jesuit order ("The Society of Jesus").

The strong political influence of the Jesuits led to suppression of the order in 1773.

• Borromini's Tempietto on the Janiculum
• Tomb of Julius II by Michelangelo
• Rebuilding of St. Peters
• Raphael frescoes in the Vatican apartments
• Last Judgement by Michelangelo in Sistine chapel.

Introduction of the modern calendar.

Clement VIII (1592-1605)

• Strong action against sale of clerical positions.
• 1582 Introduction of the Gregorian calendar (which we use today!)

• Giordano Bruno,
  Philosopher. 1548-1600 Burned at the stake at Campo de Fiori square.
  A Dominican monk who perfected Copernican theory (the sun as centre of the solar system).

• 1550 Villa Giulia (now the Etruscan museum)
• St. Peters dome.
• Church of Il Gesu'
• Lateran palace
• 1589 Piazza del Popolo
• Carracci frescoes in Farnese Palace

Height of Baroque period.

Urban VIII (1623-1644)

Innocent XII (1691-1700)

• Urban VIII supports France in the 30 years war against Germany and Spain.
• 1631 Astrology and Astronomy condemned.
• Innocent XI supports Austria, Poland and Venice against the Turks.

• Caravaggio, painter. 1571-1610.
• Gianlorenzo Bernini, sculptor 1598-1680. Baroque sculptor and architect. Directed the works on St. Peters.
• Francesco Borromini, sculptor and architect. 1599-1667

• 1600 Caravaggio's paintings in Santa Maria del Popolo church
• 1630 Bernini's awning ifor the altar at St. Peter's &
• St. Peter's square (1656)
• 1634 Borromini's church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

Loss of Power of the Church. European Cultural and Artistic development moves Northwards.

Romanticism is inspired by Rome's glories of the past.

(1775-1799)

• 1789-1799 Proclamation of the Roman Republic in the wake of the French revolution.
• 1798-1801 War with France. The Pope is made prisoner.

• 1773 The Jesuit order is disbanded for its excessive political influence having already been prohibited by various European states.

• Goethe, Turner, Shelley, Keats, Byron & the "Grand Tour" make Rome a center of inspiration for European Romanticism.

• 1701 Capitoline Museum founded by Pope Clement
• 1726 Spanish steps
• 1762 Trevi Fountain
• 1790 Canova's tomb for Clement XIII
• First excavations of the Forum by Pius VI.

King Victor Emanuel - King of unified Italy.

• 1808-1811 Rome is part of the French empire.
• The Pope is Napoleon's prisoner.
• 1814 Treaty of Vienna. The Papal state is restored.
• Garibaldi's annex of Rome to Italy is resisted with aid of the French but eventually lost when France pulls out (Franco-Prussian war).

• End of the Holy Roman Germanic Empire after 1000 years.
• 1854 Dogma of the Immaculate Conception
• 1870 Dogma of Papal Infallibility
• 1870 End of the Vatican state and dominions.
• 1871 The Pope retires behind the Vatican walls.

• Giuseppe Garibaldi, mercenary fighter. Leader of the "Red Shirts" who played a fundamental role in the expulsion of the Austrians and unification of Italy (1807-1882)

• Pincio Gardens by Giovanni Valadier
• 1887 Piazza della Republica following contour of an exedra in Nero's garden
• 1899 The imposing Palazzo di Giustizia (Law courts)

Italian post-war politics develop Bizantine complexity and instability. All focused on keeping Communism out of power. Power sharing leads to general corruption.

Various Presidents (post war)

• 1922 The Lateran Treaty recognises Vatican state independence and awards indemnity for its lost possessions.
• 1965 The Second Vatican council proposes efforts to re-unite Christian faiths.

• Paul VI puts an end to the "Holy Inquisition" and changes the name of its chief organs to "Congregation for the doctrine of the faith"
• 1981 Assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II

• Benito Mussolini. Politician and Dictator (1883-1945)
• Pius XI (1922-1939)
• Paul VI (1963-1978)
• John XXIII (1958-1963)
• John Paul II (1978-2005). First non- Italian Pope in 400 years.
• Pope Benedict XVI
  (2005-)

• 1885-1901 Altare della Patria (the "Wedding Cake" altar to unknown soldiers)
• Foro Italico (1936)
• EUR development of Rome (1939-58)
• Restoration of the Sistine Chapel (1994)
• Tombs of the Kings of Italy in the Pantheon